Evidence Collection Policy Essay Example for Free

Evidence Collection Policy Essay 1.What are the main concerns when collecting evidence? That you are thorough, collect everything, do it in the proper and official manner, and that you do not tamper with or alter anything. 2.What precautions are necessary to preserve evidence state? Usually what is done is all of the evidence is duplicated several times and any processes involved with the investigation are done with the duplicates to ensure that the actual evidence isn’t altered in any way. 3.How do you ensure evidence remains in its initial state? It is duplicated and then stored in climate controlled conditions. 4.What information and procedures are necessary to ensure evidence is admissible in court? Whoever conducts the investigation does so in a previously mandated, official, and legally recognized manner. Information Systems Security Incident Response Policy I. Title A. Name: Information Systems Security Incident Response Policy B. Number: : 20070103-secincidentresp C. Author(s): David Millar (ISC Information Security) and Lauren Steinfeld (Chief Privacy Officer) D. Status: Approved E. Date Proposed: 2005-10-24 F. Date Revised: G. Date Approved: 2007-01-03 H. Effective Date: 2007-01-16 II. Authority and Responsibility Information Systems and Computing is responsible for the operation of Penn’s data networks (PennNet) as well as the establishment of information security policies, guidelines, and standards. The Office of Audit, Compliance and  Privacy has authority to develop and oversee policies and procedures regarding the privacy of personal information. These offices therefore have the authority and responsibility to specify security incident response requirements to protect those networks as well as University data contained on those networks. III. Executive Summary This policy defines the response to computer security incidents. IV. Purpose This policy defines the steps that personnel must use to ensure that security incidents are identified, contained, investigated, and remedied. It also provides a process for documentation, appropriate reporting internally and externally, and communication so that organizational learning occurs. Finally, it establishes responsibility and accountability for all steps in the process of addressing computer security incidents. V. Risk of Non-compliance Without an effective incident response process, corrective action may be delayed and harmful effects unnecessarily exacerbated. Further, proper communication allows the University key learning opportunities to improve the security of data and networks. Individuals who fail to comply are subject to sanctions as appropriate under Penn policies. VI. Definitions Confidential University Data includes: * Sensitive Personally Identifiable Information–Information relating to an individual that reasonably identifies the individual and, if compromised, could cause significant harm to that individual or to Penn. Examples may include, but are not limited to: Social Security numbers, credit card numbers, bank account information, student grades or disciplinary information, salary or employee performance information, donations, patient health information, information Penn has promised to keep confidential, and account passwords or encryption keys used to protect access to Confidential University Data. * Proprietary Information–Data, information, or intellectual property in which the University has an exclusive legal interest or ownership right, which, if compromised could cause significant harm to Penn. Examples may include, but are not limited to, business planning, financial information, trade secret, copyrighted material, and  software or comparable material from a third party when the University has agreed to keep such information confidential. * Any other data the disclosure of which could cause significant harm to Penn or its constituents. Security Incident. There are two types of Security Incidents: Computer Security Incidents and Confidential Data Security Incidents. * A Computer Security Incident is any event that threatens the confidentiality, integrity, or availability of University systems, applications, data, or networks. University systems include, but are not limited to: servers, desktops, laptops, workstations, PDAs, network servers/processors, or any other electronic data storage or transmission device. * A Confidential Data Security Incident is a subset of Computer Security Incidents that specifically threatens the security or privacy of Confidential University Data. User. A Penn user is any faculty, staff, consultant, contractor, student, or agent of any of the above. VII. Scope This policy applies to all Users. It applies to any computing devices owned or leased by the University of Pennsylvania that experience a Computer Security Incident. It also applies to any computing device regardless of ownership, which either is used to store Confidential University Data, or which, if lost, stolen, or compromised, and based on its privileged access, could lead to the unauthorized disclosure of Confidential University Data. Examples of systems in scope include, but are not limited to, a User’s personally owned home computer that is used to store Confidential University Data, or that contains passwords that would give access to Confidential University Data. This policy does not cover incidents involving the University of Pennsylvania Health System (UPHS) information systems, which has a separate incident response policy. ISC Information Security will coordinate with UPHS as appropriate when UPHS computing devices, data, or personnel are involved. VIII. Statement of Policy A. Overview of Penn’s Incident Response Program All Computer Security Incidents must be reported to ISC Information Security promptly. See Section B below. All Confidential Data Security Incidents must: a. Generate the creation of an Immediate Response Team, as designated by the  Information Security Officer (ISO), on a per incident basis. See Section C below. b. Follow appropriate Incident Handling procedures. See Sections C and D below. iii. ISC Information Security, under the direction of the Vice President for Information Systems and Computing (VP-ISC) is responsible for logging, investigating, and reporting on security incidents. See Sections D and E below. B. Identifying and Reporting Computer Security Incidents i. Users and Local Support Providers (LSPs). In the event that a User or an LSP detects a suspected or confirmed Computer Security Incident, the User must report it to his or her Local Security Officer or IT Director for issues including but not limited to viruses, worms, local attacks, denial of service attacks, or possible disclosure of Confidential University Data. ii. Local IT Management. Local IT Management must notify ISC Information Security of all Computer Security Incidents, except for categories of incidents that ISC Information Security may designate in Appendix I of this policy. iii. ISC Information Security. ISC Information Security shall notify appropriate systems administrators and other personnel of all emergency and attack incidents, as well as all suspicious activity incidents when it believes that an administrator’s system is at risk. The system’s administrators will then work with ISC Information Security to properly address the incident and minimize the risk of future occurrences. C. Immediate Response Team i. Purpose. The purpose of each Immediate Response Team is to supplement Penn’s information security infrastructure and minimize the threat of damage resulting from Computer Security Incidents. ii. Per Incident Basis. An Immediate Response Team shall be created for Confidential Data Security Incidents. iii. Membership. Membership on the Immediate Response Team shall be as designated by the ISO. In most cases, members shall include a representative from ISC Information Security and from the affected School or Center’s technical and management staff. iv. Responsibilities. Responsibilities of the Immediate Response Team are to assess the incident and follow incident handling procedures, appropriate to the incident as determined by the ISO. v. Confidentiality. Immediate Response Team members will share information about security incidents beyond the Immediate  Response Team only on a need-to-know basis, and only after consultation with all other team members. D. Incident Handling. For incidents requiring the formation of an Immediate Response Team, the following is a list of response priorities that should be reviewed and followed as recommended by the ISO. The most important items are listed first: i. Safety and Human Issues. If an information system involved in an incident affects human life and safety, responding to any incident involving any life-critical or safety-related system is the most important priority. ii. Address Urgent Concerns. Schools and Centers may have urgent concerns about the availability or integrity of critical systems or data that must be addressed promptly. ISC Information Security shall be available for consultation in such cases. iii. Establish Scope of Incident. The Immediate Response Team shall promptly work to establish the scope of the incident and to identify the extent of systems and data affected. If it appears that personally identifiable information may have been compromised, the Immediate Response Team shall immediately inform the VP-ISC and the Chief Privacy Officer (CPO). iv. Containment. Once life-critical and safety issues have been resolved, the Immediate Response Team shall identify and implement actions to be taken to reduce the potential for the spread of an incident or its consequences across additional systems and networks. Such steps may include requiring that the system be disconnected from the network. v. Develop Plan for Preservation of Evidence. The Immediate Response Team shall develop a plan promptly upon learning about an incident for identifying and implementing appropriate steps to preserve evidence, consistent with needs to restore availability. Preservation plans may include preserving relevant logs and screen captures. The affected system may not be rebuilt until the Immediate Response Team determines that appropriate evidence has been preserved. Preservation will be addressed as quickly as possible to restore availability that is critical to maintain business operations. vi. Investigate the Incident. The Immediate Response Team shall investigate the causes of the incident and future preventative actions. During the investigation phase, members of the incident response team will attempt to determine exactly what happened during the incident, especially the vulnerability that made the incident possible. In short, investigators will attempt to answer the following questions: Who? What? Where? When? How? vii. Incident-Specific Risk  Mitigation. The Immediate Response Team shall identify and recommend strategies to mitigate risk of harm arising from the incident, including but not limited to reducing, segregating, or better protecting personal, proprietary, or mission critical data. viii. Restore Availability. Once the above steps have been taken, and upon authorization by the Immediate Response Team, the availability of affected devices or networks may be restored. ix. Penn-Wide Learning. The Immediate Response Team shall develop and arrange for implementation of a communications plan to spread learning from the security incident throughout Penn to individuals best able to reduce risk of recurrence of such incident. E. Senior Response Team (SRT). If the ISO or CPO in their judgment believe that the incident reasonably may cause significant harm to the subjects of the data or to Penn, each may recommend to the VP-ISC or Associate Vice President for Audit, Compliance and Privacy (AVP-OACP) that a Senior Response Team be established. The Senior Response Team shall be comprised of senior-level officials as designated by the VP-ISC or AVP-OACP. The Senior Response Team shall: i. Establish whether additional executive management should be briefed and the plan for such briefing. ii. Determine, with final approval by the General Counsel, whether Penn shall make best efforts to notify individuals whose personal identifiable information may have been at risk. In making this determination, the following factors shall be considered: a. legal duty to notify b. length of compromise c. human involvement d. sensitivity of data e. existence of evidence that data was accessed and acquired f. concerns about personnel with access to the data g. existence of evidence that machine was compromised for reasons other than accessing and acquiring data h. additional factors recommended for consideration by members of the Immediate Response Team or the Senior Response Team. iii. Review and approve any external communication regarding the incident. F. Documentation i. Log of security incidents. ISC Information Security shall maintain a log  of all reportable security incidents recording the date, School or Center affected, whether or not the affected machine was registered as a critical host, the type of Confidential University Data affected (if any), number of subjects (if applicable), and a summary of the reason for the intrusion, and the corrective measure taken. ii. Critical Incident Report. ISC Information Security shall issue a Critical Incident Report for every reportable security incident affecting machines qualifying as Critical Hosts, or other priority incidents in the judgment of ISC Information Security describing in detail the circumstances that led to the incident, and a plan to eliminate the risk. iii. Annual Summary Report. ISC Information Security shall provide annually for the VP-ISC and AVP-OACP a report providing statistics and summary-level information about all significant incidents reported, and providing recommendation s and plans to mitigate known risks. IX. Best Practices A. Preserving Evidence: It is essential to consult Penn Information Security when handling Computer Security Incidents. However, if Information Security is not available for emergency consultation, the following practices are recommended: i. Generally, if it is necessary to copy computer data to preserve evidence for an incident, it is a good idea to use bit-wise file-system copy utilities that will produce an exact image, (e.g.UNIX dd) rather than to use file level utilities which can alter some file meta-data. ii. When making forensic backups, always take a cryptographic hash (such as an SHA-1 hash) of both the original object and of the copied object to verify the authenticity of the copy. Consult your System Administrator if you have questions. iii. Assigning members to an Immediate Response Team: In cases where an incident involves an investigation into misconduct, the School or Center should consider carefully whom to assign to the Immediate Response Team. For example, one may not wish to assign an IT professional who works closely with the individual(s) being investigated. X. Compliance A. Verification: ISC Information Security and the Office of Audit, Compliance and Privacy will verify any known computing security incidents as having been reported and documented as defined by this policy. B. Notification: Violations of this policy will be reported by ISC Security  and the Office of Audit, Compliance and Privacy to the Senior Management of the Business Unit affected. C. Remedy: The incident will be recorded by ISC Information Security and any required action to mitigate the harmful affects of the attack will be initiated in cooperation with the Business Unit Security Officer/Liaison. D. Financial Implications: The owner of the system shall bear the costs associated with ensuring compliance with this policy. E. Responsibility: Responsibility for compliance with this policy lies with the system administrator, system owner, and Business Unit’s Senior Manager. F. Time Frame: All incidents involving critical hosts systems and networks must be reported immediately. All other incidents should be reported within one business day of determining something has occurred. G. Enforcement: Compliance with this policy will be enforced by disconnecting any machines that may compromise the University network, or other machines with Confidential University Data. Workforce members not adhering to the policy may be subject to sanctions as defined by University policies. H. Appeals: Appeals are decided by the Vice President for Information Systems and Computing. XI. References 1. PennNet Computer Security Policy at www.net.isc.upenn.edu/policy/approved/20040524-hostsecurity.html 2. Critical PennNet Host Security Policy at www.net.isc.upenn.edu/policy/approved/20000530-hostsecurity.html 3. Policy on Computer Disconnection from PennNet at www.upenn.edu/computing/policy/disconnect.html 4. Adherence to University Policy at www.hr.upenn.edu/policy/policies/001.asp 5. Policy on Security of Electronic Protected Health Information (ePHI) at www.upenn.edu/computing/security/policy/ePHI_Policy.html Appendix I The following category of incidents need not be reported to Penn Information Security: * Unsuccessful network scans

Use of self and peer assessment

Use of self and peer assessment Use of Self and Peer assessment Self Assessment describes the activities employed within and outside the classroom that enable the pupil to reflect on what has been learnt and judge it against a set of criteria, e.g. using traffic light systems which give pupils the opportunity to indicate their own thoughts about a piece of work against the given Success Criteria (SC). This could simply be used during a pit-stop or plenary, pupils mark work with an R, A or G or with the relevant colour. I have seen this working effectively with children in Keystage 1. Admittedly lower ability pupils require an element of support but simply completing the process prepares and develops their understanding for the future. Both the whiteboard and the interactive whiteboard are access points for pupils to refer to find their learning objective and success criteria. Often the LO and SC can be located on childrens work. Self Evaluation is the process by which the pupil gains an understanding ofhowthey are learning as opposed towhatthey are learning. There are numerous factors that the class teacher must consider here. Whether there is/are: The right classroom climate Clarity in the intended learning outcome and a model of what success looks like examples of expected outcome, modelled by the teacher or TA Time for self assessment and reflection Training to allow the pupils to assess their own workeffectively e.g. use of traffic light cards and colour indicators Planned opportunities for pupils to assess their work during plenaries and pit-stops Resources provided that help the self assessment process on whiteboard, selected pieces of work Classroom strategies that support self and peer assessment include modelling by the teacher using exemplars: at the beginning, during or after completing tasks, success criteria shared or created and continually referred to by teacher and pupils (see whiteboard photograph), use of questioning techniques that promote higher order thinking, graphic organisers e.g. thumbs up, post its, charts and concept maps that encourage reflection on learning process and learning outcome, reflection time during the lesson referring to agreed success criteria, marking that celebrates and encourages the pupil to reflect on aspects of their work related to success criteria, talk partners are sometimes less inhibiting for pupils to express difficulties. The process develops a more analytical approach to their work as they learn from their partners talks. It is essential that pupils are trained. (And last but not least), setting clear targets that pupils understand and can refer to, in order to improve their work: The Wise Owl has become a universal character through Reception to Year 4 at MACAULAY PRIMARY, to indicate the Learning Objective. Similarly is the use of the Success Criteria toolkit, arming pupils with the things they need to succeed in a given task. Using Talk Partners Black, P. and Wiliam, D. (1998) indicated that it is crucial that children are familiar with self assessment before embarking on peer assessment, which can be known as ‘talk partners or ‘buddy checkers. Children need to be trained in how to do this and a set of ground rules need to be established. I have spent a lot of time with pupils ensuring they are all fully aware of the expectations. Additionally, the emotional aspect of sharing work with a partner should not be overlooked as children can find it daunting to share their work with other pupils in their class. However, the teaching of literacy seems to lend itself to these types of experiences because of the emphasis on development of speaking and listening skills. As a teacher you should model paired marking for the whole class, using role-play to demonstrate the wrong way and the right way over a piece of work. Recently during our topic on Roald Dahl I produced a piece of descriptive writing which pupils then marked using set criteria. Ive found it useful to use paired marking two thirds of the way through a lesson, so that the children can make the improvement and continue with a better understanding of the quality of the work. In order to develop a sound understanding of AfL I recommend the approaches Shirley Clarke discusses in her book Targeting Assessment in the Primary Classroom and Clarkes Golden Rules for marking with a talk partner should be an essential part of any primary teachers toolkit. The guidelines are clear and can be used to create a class agreement for how best to work with your talk partner. Clarke suggests that both partners should be roughly the same ability, or just one jump ahead or behind, rather than a wide gap, however, I have found that pupils do benefit from working with partners of   varying abilities at selected times. Each pupil should take time to check their own work before a talk partner sees it. The talk partner should begin with a positive comment at least one. The roles of both parties need to be clearly defined. And perhaps displayed for future reference. The talk partner needs time to take in the childs work, so it is best for the author to read out work first. This also establishes ownership of the piece. Children need to be trained in the success and improvement process, or whatever is being used, so that they are confident with the steps involved. Children must both agree the part to be changed. The author should make the marks on his or her work, as a result of the paired discussion. Children need to be reminded that the focus of their task is the learning intention for the piece of work. The talk partner should ask for clarification rather than jump to conclusions. The improvement suggestions should be verbal and not written down. The only writing necessary is the identification of the success(es) and the improvement itself. Common experiences, I have observed in the teaching of literacy include: Use of talk partners Peer and Self Assessment Time to respond to marking Comments to help children improve However, I have found that there can be issues with ensuring pupils have time to respond to the comments made. During the spring term in Year 2, we provided pupils with time solely for this purpose; this was very successful and allowed me, as the class teacher to provide vital feedback essential for the children to progress. A second issue is having time to mark pupils work in this way, the policy indicates that not all pieces of work require marking in full but to select one key piece a week in each subject, making this a more realistic objective. As part of a continuous process of monitoring individual progress at Macaulay Primary School, some work, for example in Golden Books, is marked according to National Curriculum levels. Trialling within a year group, a key stage and as a whole school is carried out to ensure that levelling is correct, this is moderate by the Literacy Coordinators and ensures continuity throughout the school. The Golden Book follows the children through each year group during their time in the school, instantly providing evidence of progression.

Chivalry??. . . . . . . . . Today?? :: essays research papers

Chivalry is usually known as a moral system or an honor code. It originated in the 12th century when kings ruled the country, as a code to make peace. Now there is no king or queen monarchy, now there’s that wonderful thing that we call the Government. If you were to ask me if chivalry existed today I’d have to say that there are some examples, but there sure aren’t as many as there used to be. Back in the time when King Arthur ruled a lot of the people were loyal to their king and their country. Now our wonderful crime, racism, and hate conquer all systems. Some ways that you might be able to say that chivalry still is around is perhaps clubs, such as, basketball teams or baseball teams. The teams as well as the fans have great loyalty to their team. The fans will wait outside for days to get tickets for the big game. People pay to see fights on Pay-Per-View. And if you ever go to a Hawks game I’ll guarantee you that their fans will â€Å"tell off† anyone that is saying anything bad about their beloved team!   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Also another way that you would see chivalry today is in corporate businesses. For example, I work or 21st Century Telecom Inc. I do Technical Support. Anything that goes wrong with your Internet access or your e-mail devices, will be fixed by me. We are in a very corporate area, State and VanBuren, and when we have meetings about things that no one can tell the media, or other companies, such as mergers or special events. It seems that no one ever says anything negative. We are very dedicated to our job and sometimes you will catch one of our Administrators sleeping here over-night. Now if that isn’t dedication to your job, I don’t know what is!   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Another way that you could find chivalry today would be all the Unions. Chicago Unions have plenty of hard working men and women in all sorts of trades. They are very loyal and proud (most of them!) of their work that they have done. Then you get the people that just want their paycheck. Those are the types that really don’t show much loyalty or contribute much to their job.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Some ways that you could say that there is not really chivalry in today’s society is the slowly disintegrating church.

Human Resource Management Essay -- Business, International Human Resou

Human resources are considered to be a potential source for competitive advantage. It is seen as the accumulation stock of knowledge; skills and abilities that individual possess which the firm has built over years through identifiable expertise (Cappelli and Singh, 1992). The success of firms can be measured from the ability to synthesise the firm’s HR with strategic objectives of the organisation. According to Klein et al. (1991:11), ‘If expertise manifestation behaviour is consistent on the formation of skills, it becomes a basis for competitive advantage’. The scholar further argues that a dedicated skill comes from employees’ continuous application of skills to a particular tasks, product and project. Through learning and strategic combinations of dedicated skills, skills are then transforms to core skills which then can promote new product and new market (). These resource capabilities are indeed helpful for MNC exploiting developing market to gain co mpetitive advantage and hereby increasing market share. However, there have been various strategic plans by MNC to successfully gain competitive advantage in developing market taking into account theoretical frameworks and issues emanating from parent company and host county-specific. The field of international human resources management has been characterised by three broad approaches which gives an insight on cross-cultural management issues (Laurent, 1986), comparative HRM research (Brewster, 1998; Hendry, 2003), and international HRM in multinational corporations. The latter is commonly recognised as international HRM which involves diverse complexities due to diversity of national contexts and different national categories of employees (Dowling and Welch, 2004). An impor... ...n et at. (1991), specifically and critically view IHR strategic relationship between the parent company and its subsidiaries. This relationship can be viewed in two ‘fits’. The first fit is the external-outside organisational fit which encompasses the level of fit between the subsidiaries IHR undertakings and the cross-national and cross-cultural environment that is operating in which includes across it boundaries. On the other hand, internal-outside fit is viewed as IHR activities of the subsidiary and the IHR activities across other MNC within its boundaries. In summary, this business strategy possess that a subsidiary needs to put into consideration its roles and standing within the MNC and well as its place amongst the local, national and global environment when developing IHR strategies. This business strategy consideration is illustrated on Figure 2.

The Matrix Essay -- essays research papers

  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  I’m sitting in a chair, talking to a man that I’ve wanted to know for a long time. His name is Morpheus; I know that he knows more than I do about the world and how it works. Now it’s my turn, in each of his hand’s there is a pill, in one there’s a red pill and in the other a blue pill. The red pill will have me further my knowledge and the true nature of things will be revealed. The blue pill stops any further knowledge and my perception of things will remain unchanged. I take the red pill. Why do I take the red pill?   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  First of all, let’s consider the way I am. I am a very nosy person who likes taking chances and risks. If I’m given a glimpse of what is real how can I go back? I’m curious as to what lies ahead. For Morpheus to po...

Gates of Fire by Steven Pressfield Essay

I. In Greece the polis of Sparta was the number one military authority for the people and for the time period. There was nothing that the Spartans could not do when it came to war. From the time that Spartan men were born, they were evaluated for their future services to the Spartan society. Each baby was sent to have the ten, ten, one test done on them as explained in the novel, The Gates of Fire by Steven Pressfield. This test was to check and make sure that there were no deformities. If there were the children were killed because they could not help the military, therefore had no purpose in their society as a whole. Sparta was a militarist state. The other helots and Athenians and so on, looked to the Spartans for guidance and often for overall protection during the times of war. Their society as a whole was very separated from the rest of Greece though. For example in the novel when Xeones talks about his dreams to be a Spartan he knows that he would never be recognized, while hi s cousin Diomache wants to be an Athenian she knows that is it possible. One could only call himself a Spartan if he was born of a Spartan in Sparta. The polis also held itself high in importance. In the book, The Gates of Fire Rooster whose mother was a Messenian did not see a need to be honorable to Sparta and protect it either. Rooster would curse it and speak of the gods as if they were nothing. So in the novel Polynikes was going to kill Rooster because there is no need for someone who has no trust and honor for Sparta. The Spartan society was one of a kind. There was no other polis that was quite like Sparta in the matters of how they raised their people. The society had two kings, one military and one religious. They also had the council of elders that helped make decisions. In Pressfields novel Leonidas was the military king of Sparta during the times of the battle of Thermopylae. The polis of Sparta had a system, and overall it worked effectively. The men protected the city, and controlled everything through the council of elders. Then in the times of war when the men were away the women were in control. They took care of the cities everyday matters along with the helots from the surrounding polis. The mens duty to the country was to serve. In fact the  last paragraph of the novel does an excellent job in showing this by stating, Tell the Spartans, stranger passing by, that here obedient to their laws we lie. This was referencing the fact that the 300 Spartans died as they were told to by their laws and way of life. Overall the polis of Sparta had an effective system. The military worked as it was supposed to, and most other cities and rulers feared the military of Sparta. The polis also had an effective trade and governing system overall. The women and helots more often than not dealt with the everyday trade and intercity dealings. The council of elders also was effective in governing the city. II. From the beginning of life perfection was the aim and the only way for Spartans. When the children had any imperfection they were either killed or adopted by the helots surrounding the Spartan polis. The men were put up to some of the toughest tests at extremely young ages. At the age of seven they were put into the agoge for their military training. This would prepare them for the military life that they would eventually lead. Pressfields novel explains some of the tests that these young boys were expected to perform. Xeones speaks of the pushing of the tree, in which the boys are expected to push down a huge, old tree with just their muscle and force. This is known to be quite impossible, yet it prepares them for the force needed to fight later on in life. These young boys had to enter this agoge. It was part of growing up in Sparta. They would also have to fight other boys about their age in fist of fist battles as Xeones and Alexandros have to do. The Spartan boys were expected to fight until they could not fight anymore. After these ring fights the boys would also often be whipped until their spines and muscles would show. The boys could tell them to stop, but this would show weakness, so they often would take the beatings until they passed out. This may have seemed harsh and often it was, but this training was what produced the strong military men that Sparta deeply depended on to keep its title as the military power house. Throughout the novel it shows Xeones struggle to be accepted as a Spartan man. This was his dream his entire life, because as  his friend Bruxieus stated, other cities produce monuments and poetry, Sparta produces men.Then men continued to serve in the military until they were thirty years old, when they were finally pardoned of their military duties. The elders in Sparta were upon the most honored citizens. Their age and wisdom were respected more than anyone else. In the novel Xeones honors Bruxieus as he should. Even though Bruxieus is only a slave, with many handicaps that hold him back, Xeones looks past all of this. He sees the knowledge and love that he offers to him and his cousin Diomache in their time of most need. Bruxieus guides and takes care of the children after their town is attacked and their parents and farms are destroyed. So when Bruxieus died Xeones kept his promise that he would go to Sparta and become a Spartan. The women of Sparta were unlike any women from the surrounding areas. The women of Sparta were allowed to be educated, dress as they pleased, exercise and work out, and did many of the tasks that the men did. This exercised the Spartan belief that a man was only as strong as the women that he was born of. The women were not considered equal with the men though. There were many examples of this is Pressfields novel. One being the fact that when Diomache was raped by the military men they told her it was nothing personal, but not to come back because it would happen again. Also it is seen in the fact that women such as Arete though strong in her overall beliefs and her speech she was only this way in the seclusion of her own dwelling. She often would talk to Xeones about personal matters or questions and she would state her opinion, but again this was in the privacy of her own home. Though women were restricted in their power as a gender, they were also greatly respected by the honorable men in their society. This was greatly explored when Dienekes was asking the question of what is the opposite of fear. Dienekes then states, Perhaps the god we seek is not a god at all, but a goddess. He goes on to state that women have more courage and less fear than the men themselves because of all they give to society, such as childbirth. They go on to later state that the opposite of fear is love, which the women show constantly. III.Pressfields novel explores the everyday lives of the Spartan at the time of the battle of Thermopylae. The frame story is a perfect way to tell Xeones story. The first chapter explores Xeones waking up after the battle of Thermopylae and slowly realizing the situation that has occurred. The novel starts out tell the life story of Xeones and how he ended up in the predicament that he did. Pressfield does an amazing job telling the history of Sparta through a personal story. The themes of war, love, society, and spirituality were explored and related to the history aspect of the book. When Xeones starts off his story as a child, the novel shows the harsh side of war. It is one thing for the soldiers themselves to be injured; it is another for a child to see his family and polis destroyed right before his own eyes. Xeones and Diomache then have to forage in the wilderness with Bruxieus, a slave of Xeones that also survived the attack on their polis. The brutality of war and the life Xeones had to live is explored throughout the next few chapters of the novel. The harshest was the rape of Diomache and the internal battle Xeones faces with himself. After being caught stealing his hands are nailed to a board, and Xeones believes they are ruined forever. Eventually he returns to Diomache and Bruxieus, yet he runs off to let himself die because he believes he will never be a Spartan now with his disability. At this point in the novel the spirituality of the time is seen. Xeones sees Apollo the archer who guides him to his chosen career by the gods. Love is seen throughout the entire novel as Xeones craves for his cousins love and acceptance. In the beginning she tells him that he would never be man enough for her to marry and that he is only a silly boy. Yet, throughout the book he seeks her and she could then see in the temple in Athens the real man that her cousin Xeones had become. He was a Spartan, and was a man. Though he loves Diomache and later it is seen she felt the same they both had children and a spouse that came first, before true love. Arete also speaks on the matter and difference of love and marriage to a Spartan when Xeones talks privately with her. She states that she always loved Dienekes even when she was married to Iatrokles his brother. Yet, the society deems arranged marriages more important than the love felt between two people. The battle of Thermopylae was brutal, and heart wrenching. Though only explained through words in this book the blood spill was so life like. The men of Sparta spent days upon days fighting Xerxes men, trying to keep their polis free. The saddest part was the fact that they were fighting so hard, knowing the whole time that they were fighting to just eventually die. They knew they would never again see the site of Sparta or the faces of their children or wives ever again. Yet, that was what kept them going; the love for their country and families and the hope that it would remain free for them and the future generations. So though Thermopylae was a battle of warfare and fighting, it was also a story of the Spartans fighting for what they loved and what they respected. So though the book as a whole focuses on the battle of Thermopylae, it also explores the Spartan society through the eyes of Xeones. He always loved the Spartans and their ways of life. The Spartans were war; it defined them and separated them as a polis. Xeones spent his entire life to become one of these elite men, and eventually through death did so. He died serving the polis that he wanted so bad to become a part of. Yet, through his death he did so. He served the polis and protected his people, and in the end Xeones dream came true, he was honored and named a true Spartan citizen.

Insomnia and Its Causes

Insomnia is a symptom, not a stand-alone diagnosis or a disease. By definition, insomnia is† difficulty initiating or maintaining sleep, or both†or the perception of poor quality sleep. It is also a common sleep problem that can affect your quality of life. Poeple with insomnia have trouble falling asleep or staying asleep. They wake up during the night or wake up too early next morning. Insomnia may therefore be due to inadequate quality sleep. Insomnia is not defined by a specific number of hours of sleep that one gets, since individuals vary widely in their sleep needs and practices.Although most of us know what insomnia is and how we feel and perform after one or more sleepless nights, few seek medical advice. Many people remain unaware of the behavioral and medical options available to treat insomnia. Insomnia is generally classified based on the duration of the problem. These are the transcient, short-term and chronic insomnia. Insomnia affects all age groups. Among adults, insomnia affects women more often than men. The incidence tends to increase with age.It is typically more common in people in lower socioeconomic (income) groups, chronic alcoholics, and mental health patients. Stress most commonly triggers short-term or acute insomnia. If you do not address your insomnia, however, it may develop into chronic insomnia. Some surveys have shown that 30% to 35% of Americans reported difficulty falling asleep during the previous year and about 10% reported problems with long standing insomnia. There also seems to be an association between depression, anxiety and insomnia.Although the nature of this association is unknown, people with depression or anxiety were significantly more likely to develop insomnia. Insomnia may be caused by a host of different reasons. These causes may be divided into situational factors, medical or psychiatric conditions or primary sleep problems. Insomnia could also be classified by the duration of the symptoms into t ransient insomnia generally last less than seven days; short-term insomnia usually lasts for about one to three weeks, and chronic insomnia lasts for more than three weeks as mentioned earlier.The various causes of insomnia are elaborated in the paragraphs below. Many of the causes of the causes of transient and short-term insomnia are similar and they include: jet lag, changes in shift work, excessive or unpleasant noise, comfortable room temperature(too hot or too cold),stressful situations in life(exam preparation, loss of a loved one ,unemployment ,divorce ,or separation),presence of an acute medical or surgical illness or hospitalization and withdrawal from drug, alcohol, sedative, or stimulant medications.Also insomnia related to high altitude (mountains), uncontrolled physical Symptoms (pain, fever, breathing problems, nasal congestions, cough, diarrhea, etc. ) can also cause someone to have insomnia. Controlling these symptoms and their underlying causes may lead to resoluti on of insomnia. Furthermore, majority of the causes of chronic or long-term insomnia are usually linked to an underlying psychiatric or physiologic (medical) condition. Again, the most common psychological problems that may lead insomnia include:anxiety,depression,stress(mental,emotional,situational,etc. ,schizophrenia,and/or mania(bipolar disorder). Nevertheless, insomnia may be an indicator of depression. Many people will have insomnia during the acute phases of a mental illness. As mentioned earlier, depression and anxiety are strongly associated with insomnia. Out of all the other secondary medical and psychological causes of insomnia, anxiety and depression are the most common. Also, physiological causes span from circadian rhythm disorders (disturbances of the biological clock), sleep-wake imbalance, to a variety of medical conditions.The following are the most common medical conditions that trigger insomnia: chronic pain syndromes, chronic fatigue syndrome, congestive heart f ailure, night time angina(chest pain)from heart disease, acid reflux disease(GERD),Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary disease(COPD) and nocturnal asthma(asthma with night time breathing symptoms). Others include: obstructive sleep apnea, degenerated disease, such as Parkinson’s disease and Alzheimer’s disease(often insomnia is the deciding factor for nursing home placement. and brain tumors, strokes, or trauma to the brain. In addition to people with the above medical conditions, certain groups may be at higher risk for developing insomnia: travelers, shift workers with frequent changing of shifts, seniors, adolescents or young adult’s students, pregnant women, women in menopause, people who use abuse drugs and alcoholics. Another area worth mentioning is the medication related to insomnia. Certain medications have also been associated with insomnia.Among these are: certain over-the-counter cold and asthma preparations, the prescription varieties of these medications may also contain stimulants and thus produce similar effects on sleep, some medications used to treat high blood pressure have also been associated with poor sleep and some medications used to treat depression, anxiety and schizophrenia. Other causes of insomnia are common stimulants associated with poor sleep include caffeine and nicotine. You should consider not only restricting caffeine and nicotine use in the hours immediately before bedtime but limiting your total daily intake.Also, people often use alcohol to help induce sleep, as a nightcap. However, it is a poor choice. Alcohol is associated with sleep disruption and creates a sense of non-refreshed sleep in the morning. Lastly, a disruptive bed partner with loud snoring or periodic leg movements also may impair your ability to get a good night’s sleep. In spite of the above stated points doctors associate a variety of signs and symptoms with insomnia. Often, the symptoms intertwine with those of other medical or men tal conditions.They are: some people with insomnia may complain of difficulty falling asleep or waking up frequently during the night. The problem may begin with stress. Then, as you begin to associate the bed with your inability to sleep, the problem may become chronic. Also most often daytime symptoms will bring people to seek medical attention. Daytime problems caused by insomnia include the following: poor concentration and focus, difficulty with memory, impaired motor coordination (being uncoordinated), irritability and impaired social interaction and motor vehicle accidents because of fatigued, sleep-deprived drivers.Other symptoms may include: having trouble falling asleep, waking up during the night and having trouble going back to sleep, waking up too early in the morning, feeling tired when they wake up(like didn’t get enough sleep) and feeling grouchy, sleep, or anxious and be unable to get things done during the daytime. People may worsen these daytime symptoms by their own attempts to treat the symptoms; alcohol and antihistamines may compound the problems with sleep deprivation. Others have also tried non prescription sleep aids.Many people with insomnia do not complain of daytime sleepiness, and in fact, they may have difficulty falling asleep during intentional daytime naps. In diagnosing insomnia, the health practitioner will begin an evaluation of insomnia with a complete medical history. As with most medical examinations; a complete medical history and physical examination are import aspects of assessment and treatment of insomnia. The health care practitioner will seek to identify any medical or psychological illness that may be contributing to the patient’s insomnia.A thorough medical history and examination including screening for psychiatric disorders and drug and alcohol use is paramount in evaluation of a patient with sleep problems. Physical examination may particularly focus on heart and lung examination, and measuremen t of size of the neck and visualizing oral and nasal air passages(to see whether sleep apnea needs to be assessed in more detail). Treatment for insomnia focuses on the reason why you don’t sleep well. In general, transient insomnia resolves when the underlying trigger is removed or corrected.Most people seek medical attention when their insomnia becomes chronic. The main focus of treatment for insomnia should be directed towards finding the cause. Once a cause is identified, it is important to manage and control the underlying problem, as this alone may eliminate the insomnia without addressing the main cause is rarely successful. If you have a medical problem, such as stress, treating that problem may help you sleep better. You may be able to sleep better by making some small changes.It may help to: go to bed at the same time each night, get up at the same time each day, avoid caffeine and alcohol for several hours before bedtime, get regular exercise (but make sure you fin ish the exercise at least 3 to 4 hours before you go to bed) and avoid daytime naps. Some people may need medicine for a while to help them fall asleep. Doctors often prescribe medicine for a short time if other treatment isn’t working. But medicine doesn’t work as well over time as lifestyle and behavior changes do. Sleep medicine can also become habit-forming.Medicine works best as a short-term treatment combined with lifestyle and behavior changes. Your doctor may also recommend counseling, which can help you learn new habits that may help you sleep better. Talk to your doctor about your sleep problems and any other health issues you may have. This is important, because lack of sleep can lead to depression, accidents, and problems at work, marital and social problems, drinking more alcohol than usual and poor health. Treatment may help you avoid these problems and feel better. Generally, treatment of insomnia entails both non-pharmacologic (non-medical) and pharmaco logic (medical) aspects.It is best to tailor treatment for individual patient based on the potential cause. Studies have shown that combining medical and non-medical treatments typically is more successful in treating insomnia than either one alone. In a nutshell, I would advise that if you have insomnia caused by jet lag, your symptoms will generally clear up within a few days. If you are depressed and have had insomnia for many months, it is unlikely that your symptoms will go away on their own. Your outcome will also depend on coexisting medical conditions, which may include congestive heart ailure, chronic obstructive pulmonary diseases (COPD), and chronic pain syndromes. Synonyms and keywords Sleeplessness, stress, anxiety, depression, sleepless, chronic insomnia, acute insomnia, mental illness, sleep habits, insomniac, insomnia, difficulty sleeping, sleep, disorders that disrupt sleep, difficulty falling asleep, primary insomnia, sleep test, obstructive sleep apnea, insomnia m edications, daytime sleepiness, melatonin, jet lag, shift change. Authors and Editors Author: Siamak T. Nabili(2010),MD,MPH Editor: Melissa Conrad Stoppler, MD Reference: eMedicine. Com. Insomnia. http://emedicine. edscape. com/article/1187829-overview Previous contributing authors and editors: Author: Mary E. Cataletto, MD, Associate Director, Division of Pediatric Pulmonology, Winthrop University Hospital; Associate Professor, Department of Clinical Pediatrics, State University of New York at Stony Brook, et al. Other works consulted: * Littner M, et al. (2003). Practice parameters for using polysomnography to evaluate insomnia: An update. Sleep, 26(6):754-760. * Ropper AH, Samuels MA (2009). Sleep and its abnormalities. In Adams and Victor’s principles of Neurology, 9th ed. , pp. 374-396. New York: McGraw-Hill.